A Study On Business Forecasting Statistics Essay

A Study On Business Forecasting Statistics Essay The aim of this report is to show my understanding of business forecasting using data which was drawn from the UK national statistics. It is a quarterly series of total consumer credit gross lending in the UK from the second quarter 1993 to the second quarter 2009. The report answers four key questions that are relevant to the coursework. In this section the data will be examined, looking for seasonal effects, trends and cycles. Each time period represents a single piece of data, which must be split into trend-cycle and seasonal effect. The line graph in Figure 1 identifies a clear upward trend-cycle, which must be removed so that the seasonal effect can be predicted. Figure 1 displays long-term credit lending in the UK, which has recently been hit by an economic crisis. Figure 2 also proves there is evidence of a trend because the ACF values do not come down to zero. Even though the trend is clear in Figure 1 and 2 the seasonal pattern is not. Therefore, it is important the trend-cycle is removed so the seasonal effect can be estimated clearly. Using a process called differencing will remove the trend whilst keeping the pattern. Drawing scattering plots and calculating correlation coefficients on the differenced data will reveal the pattern repeat. Scatter Plot correlation The following diagram (Figure 3) represents the correlation between the original credit lending data and four lags (quarters). A strong correlation is represented by is showed by a straight-line relationship. As depicted in Figure 3, the scatter plot diagrams show that the credit lending data against lag 4 represents the best straight line. Even though the last diagram represents the straightest line, the seasonal pattern is still unclear. Therefore differencing must be used to resolve this issue. Differencing Differencing is used to remove a trend-cycle component. Figure 4 results display an ACF graph, which indicates a four-point pattern repeat. Moreover, figure 5 shows a line graph of the first difference. The graph displays a four-point repeat but the trend is still clearly apparent. To remove the trend completely the data must differenced a second time. First differencing is a useful tool for removing non-stationary. However, first differencing does not always eliminate non-stationary and the data may have to be differenced a second time. In practice, it is not essential to go beyond second differencing, because real data generally involve non-stationary of only the first or second level. Figure 6 and 7 displays the second difference data. Figure 6 displays an ACF graph of the second difference, which reinforces the idea of a four-point repeat. Suffice to say, figure 7 proves the trend-cycle component has been completely removed and that there is in fact a four-point pattern repeat. Question 2 Multiple regression involves fitting a linear expression by minimising the sum of squared deviations between the sample data and the fitted model. There are several models that regression can fit. Multiple regression can be implemented using linear and nonlinear regression. The following section explains multiple regression using dummy variables. Dummy variables are used in a multiple regression to fit trends and pattern repeats in a holistic way. As the credit lending data is now seasonal, a common method used to handle the seasonality in a regression framework is to use dummy variables. The following section will include dummy variables to indicate the quarters, which will be used to indicate if there are any quarterly influences on sales. The three new variables can be defined: Q1 = first quarter Q2 = second quarter Q3 = third quarter Trend and seasonal models using model variables The following equations are used by SPSS to create different outputs. Each model is judged in terms of its adjusted R2. Linear trend + seasonal model Data = a + c time + b1 x Q1 + b2 x Q2 + b3 x Q3 + error Quadratic trend + seasonal model Data = a + c time + b1 x Q1 + b2 x Q2 + b3 x Q3 + error Cubic trend + seasonal model Data = a + c time + b1 x Q1 + b2 x Q2 + b3 x Q3 + error Initially, data and time columns were inputted that displayed the trends. Moreover, the sales data was regressed against time and the dummy variables. Due to multi-collinearity (i.e. at least one of the variables being completely determined by the others) there was no need for all four variables, just Q1, Q2 and Q3. Linear regression Linear regression is used to define a line that comes closest to the original credit lending data. Moreover, linear regression finds values for the slope and intercept that find the line that minimizes the sum of the square of the vertical distances between the points and the lines. Model Summary Model R R Square Adjusted R Square Std. Error of the Estimate 1 .971a .943 .939 3236.90933 Figure 8. SPSS output displaying the adjusted coefficient of determination R squared Coefficientsa Model Unstandardized Coefficients Standardized Coefficients t Sig. B Std. Error Beta 1 (Constant) 17115.816 1149.166 14.894 .000 time 767.068 26.084 .972 29.408 .000 Q1 -1627.354 1223.715 -.054 -1.330 .189 Q2 -838.519 1202.873 -.028 -.697 .489 Q3 163.782 1223.715 .005 .134 .894 Figure 9 The adjusted coefficient of determination R squared is 0.939, which is an excellent fit (Figure 8). The coefficient of variable ‘time, 767.068, is positive, indicating an upward trend. All the coefficients are not significant at the 5% level (0.05). Hence, variables must be removed. Initially, Q3 is removed because it is the least significant variable (Figure 9). Once Q3 is removed it is still apparent Q2 is the least significant value. Although Q3 and Q2 is removed, Q1 is still not significant. All the quarterly variables must be removed, therefore, leaving time as the only variable, which is significant. Coefficientsa Model Unstandardized Coefficients Standardized Coefficients t Sig. B Std. Error Beta 1 (Constant) 16582.815 866.879 19.129 .000 time 765.443 26.000 .970 29.440 .000 Figure 10 The following table (Table 1) analyses the original forecast against the holdback data using data in Figure 10. The following equation is used to calculate the predicted values. Predictedvalues = 16582.815+765.443*time Original Data Predicted Values 50878.00 60978.51 52199.00 61743.95 50261.00 62509.40 49615.00 63274.84 47995.00 64040.28 45273.00 64805.72 42836.00 65571.17 43321.00 66336.61 Table 1 Suffice to say, this model is ineffective at predicting future values. As the original holdback data decreases for each quarter, the predicted values increase during time, showing no significant correlation. Non-Linear regression Non-linear regression aims to find a relationship between a response variable and one or more explanatory variables in a non-linear fashion. (Quadratic) Model Summaryb Model R R Square Adjusted R Square Std. Error of the Estimate 1 .986a .972 .969 2305.35222 Figure 11 Coefficientsa Model Unstandardized Coefficients Standardized Coefficients t Sig. B Std. Error Beta 1 (Constant) 11840.996 1099.980 10.765 .000 time 1293.642 75.681 1.639 17.093 .000 time2 -9.079 1.265 -.688 -7.177 .000 Q1 -1618.275 871.540 -.054 -1.857 .069 Q2 -487.470 858.091 -.017 -.568 .572 Q3 172.861 871.540 .006 .198 .844 Figure 12 The quadratic non-linear adjusted coefficient of determination R squared is 0.972 (Figure 11), which is a slight improvement on the linear coefficient (Figure 8). The coefficient of variable ‘time, 1293.642, is positive, indicating an upward trend, whereas, ‘time2, is -9.079, which is negative. Overall, the positive and negative values indicate a curve in the trend. All the coefficients are not significant at the 5% level. Hence, variables must also be removed. Initially, Q3 is removed because it is the least significant variable (Figure 9). Once Q3 is removed it is still apparent Q2 is the least significant value. Once Q2 and Q3 have been removed it is obvious Q1 is under the 5% level, meaning it is significant (Figure 13). Coefficientsa Model Unstandardized Coefficients Standardized Coefficients t Sig. B Std. Error Beta 1 (Constant) 11698.512 946.957 12.354 .000 time 1297.080 74.568 1.643 17.395 .000 time2 -9.143 1.246 -.693 -7.338 .000 Q1 -1504.980 700.832 -.050 -2.147 .036 Figure 13 Table 2 displays analysis of the original forecast against the holdback data using data in Figure 13. The following equation is used to calculate the predicted values: QuadPredictedvalues = 11698.512+1297.080*time+(-9.143)*time2+(-1504.980)*Q1 Original Data Predicted Values 50878.00 56172.10 52199.00 56399.45 50261.00 55103.53 49615.00 56799.29 47995.00 56971.78 45273.00 57125.98 42836.00 55756.92 43321.00 57379.54 Table 2 Compared to Table 1, Table 2 presents predicted data values that are closer in range, but are not accurate enough. Non-Linear model (Cubic) Model Summaryb Model R R Square Adjusted R Square Std. Error of the Estimate 1 .997a .993 .992 1151.70013 Coefficientsa Model Unstandardized Coefficients Standardized Coefficients t Sig. B Std. Error Beta 1 (Constant) 17430.277 710.197 24.543 .000 time 186.531 96.802 .236 1.927 .060 time2 38.217 3.859 2.897 9.903 .000 time3 -.544 .044 -2.257 -12.424 .000 Q1 -1458.158 435.592 -.048 -3.348 .002 Q2 -487.470 428.682 -.017 -1.137 .261 Q3 12.745 435.592 .000 .029 .977 Figure 15 The adjusted coefficient of determination R squared is 0.992, which is the best fit (Figure 14). The coefficient of variable ‘time, 186.531, and time2, 38.217, is positive, indicating an upward trend. The coefficient of ‘time3 is -.544, which indicates a curve in trend. All the coefficients are not significant at the 5% level. Hence, variables must be removed. Initially, Q3 is removed because it is the least significant variable (Figure 15). Once Q3 is removed it is still apparent Q2 is the least significant value. Once Q3 and Q2 have been removed Q1 is now significant but the ‘time variable is not so it must also be removed. Coefficientsa Model Unstandardized Coefficients Standardized Coefficients t Sig. B Std. Error Beta 1 (Constant) 18354.735 327.059 56.120 .000 time2 45.502 .956 3.449 47.572 .000 time3 -.623 .017 -2.586 -35.661 .000 Q1 -1253.682 362.939 -.042 -3.454 .001 Figure 16 Table 3 displays analysis of the original forecast against the holdback data using data in Figure 16. The following equation is used to calculate the predicted values: CubPredictedvalues = 18354.735+45.502*time2+(-.623)*time3+(-1253.682)*Q1 Original Data Predicted Values 50878.00 49868.69 52199.00 48796.08 50261.00 46340.25 49615.00 46258.51 47995.00 44786.08 45273.00 43172.89 42836.00 40161.53 43321.00 39509.31 Table 3 Suffice to say, the cubic model displays the most accurate predicted values compared to the linear and quadratic models. Table 3 shows that the original data and predicted values gradually decrease. Question 3 Box Jenkins is used to find a suitable formula so that the residuals are as small as possible and exhibit no pattern. The model is built only involving a few steps, which may be repeated as necessary, resulting with a specific formula that replicates the patterns in the series as closely as possible and also produces accurate forecasts. The following section will show a combination of decomposition and Box-Jenkins ARIMA approaches. For each of the original variables analysed by the procedure, the Seasonal Decomposition procedure creates four new variables for the modelling data: SAF: Seasonal factors SAS: Seasonally adjusted series, i.e. de-seasonalised data, representing the original series with seasonal variations removed. STC: Smoothed trend-cycle component, which is smoothed version of the seasonally adjusted series that shows both trend and cyclic components. ERR: The residual component of the series for a particular observation Autoregressive (AR) models can be effectively coupled with moving average (MA) models to form a general and useful class of time series models called autoregressive moving average (ARMA) models,. However, they can only be used when the data is stationary. This class of models can be extended to non-stationary series by allowing differencing of the data series. These are called autoregressive integrated moving average (ARIMA) models. The variable SAS will be used in the ARIMA models because the original credit lending data is de-seasonalised. As the data in Figure 19 is de-seasonalised it is important the trend is removed, which results in seasonalised data. Therefore, as mentioned before, the data must be differenced to remove the trend and create a stationary model. Model Statistics Model Number of Predictors Model Fit statistics Ljung-Box Q(18) Number of Outliers Stationary R-squared Normalized BIC Statistics DF Sig. Seasonal adjusted series for creditlending from SEASON, MOD_2, MUL EQU 4-Model_1 0 .485 14.040 18.693 15 .228 0 Model Statistics Model Number of Predictors Model Fit statistics Ljung-Box Q(18) Number of Outliers Stationary R-squared Normalized BIC Statistics DF Sig. Seasonal adjusted series for creditlending from SEASON, MOD_2, MUL EQU 4-Model_1 0 .476 13.872 16.572 17 .484 0 ARMA (3,2,0) Original Data Predicted Values 50878.00 50335.29843 52199.00 50252.00595 50261.00 50310.44277 49615.00 49629.75233 47995.00

Rate of Chemical Reaction between Magnesium and Hydrochloric Acid :: Papers

Rate of Chemical Reaction between Magnesium and Hydrochloric Acid Aim: - ====== I plan to investigate the effect of temperature, to see if it increases or decreases the rate of reaction between magnesium and hydrochloric acid. Prediction: - ============= I predict that as the temperature of the hydrochloric acid increases, the quicker the rate of reaction will be. This is due to the molecules in the hydrochloric acid gaining energy from the heat. Consequently, the molecules have increased kinetic energy, which will produce more activation energy. The particles will have more successful collisions resulting in a faster reaction rate. No heat Heat present Lines of reaction [IMAGE] Mg turnings Beaker [IMAGE][IMAGE][IMAGE][IMAGE][IMAGE][IMAGE][IMAGE][IMAGE][IMAGE][IMAGE][IMAGE][IMAGE][IMAGE][IMAGE][IMAGE][IMAGE][IMAGE][IMAGE][IMAGE][IMAGE][IMAGE][IMAGE][IMAGE][IMAGE][IMAGE][IMAGE][IMAGE] Hcl [IMAGE][IMAGE][IMAGE][IMAGE][IMAGE][IMAGE][IMAGE][IMAGE][IMAGE] The above diagram show that when there is more heat present there are more lines of reaction than if there was less heat. This is due to the number of successful collisions being far greater when the hydrochloric acid is heated. I predict also that if I did a graph showing the volume of gas against time it would look like the following. [IMAGE] From the above graph you can see that when the Time Increases the volume of gas being produced goes up, then it levels off. It levels off because the volume of hydrogen gas being produced is slowing down because all the magnesium and hydrochloric acid is being used up. Fair test ========= In order to keep my experiment as fair as possible I will have to make sure I keep the following factors the same: - Volume of acid (25cm3) Mass of Magnesium (0.1g) I will make sure the gas syringe is connected correctly and securely to the side arm conical, so no hydrogen gas can escape. I will start the syringe at 0 for each run. Also I would make sure to put the bung on quickly, to prevent the hydrogen gas escaping.

Open Letter Assignment Essay

I have dreamt of graduating college since I began school. By the time I was your age, I had been practicing my college acceptance speech to my parents for many years. I understand that it can be difficult to imagine another four years of schooling. When you look at the alternative, however, you will find that you must work hard now to enjoy the rest of your life. When you are a middle-aged person, you will have been enjoying weekends off and family vacations for so long you won’t even think back about regretting college. In the grand scheme of things, it is only four years of your life. The first thing to do is look at places you’d like to live. If you already know what you want to do then you should choose a school that offers studying in that subject. However, don’t be alarmed if you don’t know what you want to do. Some people pick schools for a certain subject that they end up wanting nothing to do with. Even I have thought of several things I wanted to do and still have not come to a decision. Having a foundation of education is what is most important. You can always change your mind and get difference experience through different internships and jobs. By the time you graduate college, you will have had plenty of opportunities come your way. Another piece of advice is to take one week at a time. College work can be overwhelming, but not as overwhelming as working a full time job that doesn’t pay well or that doesn’t make you feel good going to it. If you’re worried about your math or writing skills, there are lots of ways to get help in college. There are writing centers, math tutors, and much more assistance available to you. Not everyone in college is good at every subject, so don’t worry!

Summary of Economics of Strategy Book Essay - 1539 Words

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